Theory and Methods

We use a broad range of methods to deliver theoretical, methodological and empirical research insights across various behaviours.

Ninety-nine hundredths or, possibly, nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely automatic and habitual William James, 1891

Theory of habits

Our theoretical research addresses fundamental questions about the nature and role of habit in human behaviour.

  • What is a habit?
  • What is a habitual behaviour?
  • How long does it take to form a habit?

What is a 'habit'?

GARDNER, B., Rebar, A., de Wit, S., & LALLY, P. (2024) . Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18, e12975.

GARDNER, B., & LALLY, P. (2023). . Health Psychology Review, 17, 490-496.

GARDNER, B. (2015) . Health Psychology Review, 9, 277-295.

What is a 'habitual behaviour'?

GARDNER, B. (2022). . Current Research in Behavioral Sciences, 3, 100081.

GARDNER, B., Rebar, A.L., & LALLY, P. (2020) Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 47, 101539.

GARDNER, B., Rebar, A.L., & LALLY, P. (2019) . British Journal of Health Psychology, 24, 241-249.

McLaurin, T., GARDNER, B., Shriane, A. E., Rebar, A. L., & Vincent, G. (2025) Journal of Sleep Research.

How do habits affect our behaviour?

GARDNER, B., LALLY, P., & Rebar, A. (2020) Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 14, e12553.

Rebar, A. L., Lagoa, C. M., GARDNER, B., & Conroy, D. E. (2024). .  Exercise & Sports Sciences Reviews, 52, 102-107. 

How long does it take to form a habit?

Keller, J., Kwasnicka, D., Klaiber, P., Sichert, L., LALLY, P., & Fleig, L. (2021), . British Journal of Health Psychology, 26, 807-824. 

LALLY, P., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Potts, H. W. W., & Wardle, J. (2010). . European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 9981009.

Methods for understanding habits

Our methodological research aims to develop new ways of studying habit in the real-world.

  • How should habit be studied?
  • What is the best way to measure habit? 

How should habits be studied?

GARDNER, B., Rebar, A., & LALLY, P. (2022). . Cogent Psychology, 9, 2041277.

GARDNER, B. & LALLY, P. (2018) Modelling habit formation and its determinants. In B. Verplanken (Ed.), The psychology of habit (pp207-229). Berlin: Springer.

How should habits be measured?

Diefenbacher, S., LALLY, P., & GARDNER, B. (2023). . British Journal of Health Psychology, 28, 499-512.

Rebar, A., GARDNER, B., Rhodes, R.E., & Verplanken, B. (2018). The measurement of habit. In B. Verplanken (Ed.), (pp31-49). Berlin: Springer.

The Self-Report Behavioural Automaticity Index (SRBAI)

GARDNER, B., Abraham, C., LALLY, P., & de Bruijn, G.-J. (2012) . International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 102. 

GARDNER, B., LALLY, P., & Rebar, A. L. (2024) . Applied Psychology: Health and Well-being.

Future directions in habit research

GARDNER, B., Arden, M. A., Brown, D., Eves, F. F., [...] & LALLY, P. (2023) . Psychology and Health, 38, 518-540.